The word “Farinaceous” is derived from the Latin word “Farina” meaning flour and the French word “Farineux” and “Farinages”. The English term “Farinaceous” indicate a wide range of dishes made with different flours, usually as a main ingredient. These include the vast range of Indian pastas in their many different forms, shapes and sizes and a range of similar uses and value for the menu.
In the traditional menu, these three types of dish are normally served as a subsidiary item for lunch, coming up after the soup or frequently acting as a hors d’oeuvre. When garnished and with a suitable sauce, they can serve as a substantial main dishes any time of the day. When plainly prepared and not over garnished, they make suitable garnishes for a number of fish, meat and poultry dishes. It is usual to serve grated Parmesan cheese or similar, as an accompaniment for most farinaceous dishes and rice dishes.
Gnocchi
There are three main types of small dumplings or Gnocchi:
1. Gnocchi Parisienne (Made from flour, egg and butter, which in effect is a basic choux paste).
2. Romaine (Made from milk, semolina and egg).
3. Gnocchi Italienne (Made from potato, flour and egg).
Basically these are all gratinated with butter and cheese, but can all be lightly garnished or mixed with mushrooms, cooked sausages, poultry or meat. Tomato sauce, jus-lie, Béchamel and cream are used as variations.
Pastas
The name “Pasta” is the Italian word for “paste”; so called because pasta is made from a mixture of durum wheat flour and water and sometimes eggs. Durum wheat (High gluten quality and content) is milled and mixed with water, salt, eggs, oil and at times, vegetable colouring. Semolina or rawa is preferred to flour because less water is required to make the pasta dough, which greatly helps in the drying stage.
Types of Pasta
1. Commercial Pastas
It is made from dough that has been shaped and dried (Pasta second-dry pasta).
a. Macaroni (Refers to pastas made from flour and water. These include spaghetti, lasagna, elbow macaroni etc.).
b. Egg pastas (Contain at least 5.5% egg solids, in addition to the flour and water. They are sold as flat noodles of various widths).
2. Fresh Egg Pasta
Fresh egg pasta or pasta all’uovo are made from flour and eggs and sometimes, a small quantity of water and/or oil. Soft egg noodle products are also available in fresh and frozen form from the manufacturer. They take less time to cook than dried macaroni products.
3. Fancy Pastas
This group contains cut macaroni, which may be straight or slant out and a large variety of fancy shaped pastas.
Pastas may be classified according to their size and shapes as:
1. Long Pasta
This group includes smooth, solid rod forms e.g. spaghetti, vermicelli, tubular forms of which the outer surface may be smooth or corrugated like macaroni and flat from inside.
2. Short pieces of Pasta
e.g. Farafallette (Butterfly shaped Pasta).
3. Pasta suitable for stuffing
These are of two types:
a. Those that are stuffed, while the pasta is in raw stage and then cooked e.g. ravioli, tortellini.
b. Those that are partially cooked before being stuffed and then cooking is completed e.g. cannelloni.
4. Small Fancy Pastas
This group consists of a large variety of small pastas which are used almost exclusively for garnishing. E.g. Capellini (Fine hair-like vermicelli), Alfabeto (Letters and numbers), Stellette (Small stars).
Cooking of Pastas
All pastas should be cooked in boiling salted water, allowing at least 1 liter of water and 10 Gms of salt per 100 Gms of raw pasta. They should be gently stirred with a wooden spoon to prevent sticking together and allowed to simmer gently.
Stuffed pastas like ravioli require very gentle simmering only to prevent breaking. The actual cooking time is determined by the size or thickness of the pasta, but in all cases, it should not be overcooked. Cook all pastas to “al-dente” stage, drain well and use immediately.
If not served immediately, the cooked pasta can be refreshed and kept in a basin of cold water or tossed with oil and kept in the refrigerator. Where possible, pasts should always be freshly cooked and used immediately.
In addition to the standard finishing of butter, cream and grated Parmesan cheese, there are a number of sauces like Béchamel sauce, Crème, Jus-lie, Demi-glace, Sauce Italienne, Sauce Champignon, Sauce Tomate, Pesto and Provenoale. Besides these, there are a few sauces which are special to pasta dishes, as well as some of which become an integral part of the dish e.g. Bolognaise, Sauce Nicoise or Tomato and Basil Sauce.
Noodles
The word “Noodle” is derived from the German word for dumplings “Nudeln”. Dumplings seem to have originated from the practice of putting uncooked dough or bread pieces into soups or stews. Noodles are defined as “food paste made of flour, water and eggs, which may be either dried or fresh. Noodles are also referred to as “vermicelli”, regardless of whether they come from Italy or Hong Kong. The main areas of production are Central Europe, America and the Far East.
The Germans are the first to make noodle dough with eggs. Egg noodles are also popular with the Italians and the Chinese. Asian noodles may be based on a number of different flour pastes, with or without eggs, including the flour of mung, soy beans, sea weed, corn, chick peas, rice and durum wheat. The Japanese have an impressive range of noodle made of golden buckwheat. Japan shares China for a fondness for cellophane noodles called in Japan as “Harusame”.
Dumplings
Dumplings are starch products made from soft dough or batter and are cooked by simmering or steaming. They are served as side dishes and in soups and stews. Different National cuisines have their own kind of dumplings e.g. Potato dumplings and Caraway dumplings.
Spaetzle
Spaetzle are small dumplings or noodles made from a thin egg and flour batter.
Yield
450 Gms of uncooked pasta yields about 1.4 kg of cooked pasta. This is enough for 4-5 portions of main course or 8-10 side dish or first course portions.
Wednesday, October 27, 2010
EGGS
We consume the eggs of birds like consume the eggs of birds like hen, goose, turkey, fowls etc. The eggs of only those birds whose meat is eaten are used for cooking purposes. But in India, eggs of hen and ducks are used. Eggs serve a versatile and basic function in diet and in food preparation. They are a pre-packaged container of nutrients in their own disposable shell.
Grading of eggs
(U.S. weight classes for eggs, minimum weight per dozen for each size)
Jumbo Extra large Large Medium Small Peewee
30 oz/
75 Gms/egg
(900 Gms per dozen) 27 oz/
68.5 Gms/egg
(810 Gms per dozen) 24 oz/
60 Gms/egg
(720 Gms per dozen) 21 oz/
52.5 Gms/egg
(630 Gms per dozen) 18 oz/
45 Gms/egg
(540 Gms per dozen) 15 oz/
37.5 Gms/egg
(450 Gms per dozen)
N.B.:1 oz=30 Gms approx.
Structure of eggs
Structure of an Egg
The egg is composed of shell, white and yolk. The egg white forms 2/3rd of the whole egg and the yolk forms 1/3rd.
1. Shell
It is the outer hard covering of the egg and is made up of Calcium, Magnesium carbonate and Calcium phosphate. The shell gives shape to the egg and holds the inner contents. The shell contains thousands of pores that allow CO2 and moisture to escape, as well as air to enter. The shell is covered by a cuticle membrane or Bloom and should not be washed. The bloom acts as protective covering blocking the pores, and prevents moisture loss and bacterial contamination. When eggs are washed before going to the market, the cuticle is removed. To protect the egg, the washed eggs are coated with a thin film of edible oil.
2. Membrane
Beneath the shell, there are two semi permeable membranes - the outer and the inner. These membranes act as a protective layer in case the shell cracks.
3. Air cell
On one side of the egg (broader), both these membranes separate to form an air cell. This is formed by contraction of the contents as soon as the egg is laid, due to the difference in the outside temperature.
4. Egg white
It has 1/8th part of the protein, which is called albumin; the remaining being water. The egg white consists of three parts – the outer thin albumen, the middle thick albumin and the inner thin albumin.
5. Egg yolk
The yolk is separated from the white by a membrane called vitelline membrane. This membrane prevents the mix of both yolk and white. 1/6th parts of the egg yolk contains proteins, 1/3rd fat and the rest water, Vitamins and minerals like Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron etc.
6. Chalaza
The egg is kept in position at the centre of the egg with the help of the chalaza. It has a thick-cord like appearance and is composed of proteins. This chord-like structure may have to be strained while making custards.
Composition of an Egg
Parts Number Weight H2O Proteins Fats
Whole egg 1 50 Gms 74% 13% 12%
Egg white 1 33 Gms 88% 11% Traces
Egg yolk 1 17 Gms 51% 16% 31%
Selection of Eggs+
Colour
The Colour has no direct effect on the quality of the egg. It depends on the breed, the type of bird and the food consumed. However avoid any eggs with patches formed on the surface as they indicate deterioration of eggs.
Size and Weight
It again depends on the type of bird. An average hen’s egg weighs around 50 gms. The weight should be proportional to the size of the egg. If the size is big and the weight is less, the air cell is big, which indicates that the egg is old.
Egg white
It should not be watery but firm. Firm albumen is a sign of freshness.
Egg yolk
Its colour again depends on the type & feed of the bird. The pigment contained is different feeds are different. Birds that feed on green grass or yellow corn will have a dark yellow colour because of the carotinoids present in the grass. However, avoid eggs which have blood spots (meat spots). The blood spot means that the egg is fertilized and nearing hatching (the blood spots caused by the rupture of a blood vessel during egg formation).
Approximately 1% of all eggs will have these spots which are detected and removed during grading. Electronic blood detectors are sometimes used for grading. Although the blood spot may be objectionable to the consumer, the eggs are chemically and nutritionally fit to eat. In fact, the blood spot is an indicator that the egg is fresh. As the egg ages, the yolk removes H2O from the albumen and dilutes the blood spot.
Free from cracks
The egg must be free from cracks. If the egg is cracked, there are chances that the egg is spoilt, since the micro-organisms have an easy access into the egg.
Flavour and Odour
Generally the eggs don’t have any odour from the outside, except that of the packing material, which must not be strong smelling. Sometimes the smell may penetrate into the egg. Hence, eggs are usually stored away from strong flavoured foods like fish, onions, garlic etc.
In order to maintain the standard, size, quality, colour and weight, the distributors buy eggs, usually from on-farm only, where the diet is kept constant.
If the birds are of the same breed and feed, the standard can be maintained.
Test for freshness
There are two basic tests for judging the freshness of an egg externally i.e. without breaking, as stated under:
1. Water treatment
When egg is placed in water and if it floats, then it is stale. If it sinks completely, it is good. If it floats half-way, then the egg is neither too fresh, nor stale. The air cell increases in size as the eggs get older, which results in floating of eggs.
2. Candling
Egg is placed in a dark room before a candle to see the yolk, white and the presence of blood spots, etc. Now a day, most eggs are graded by passing down on roller over high intensity lights. The eggs are rotated as they move on rollers, so that all parts are visible.
Reasons for storage of eggs
1. As soon as the eggs are laid, they start deteriorating as they come in contact with the atmosphere.
2. The dense albumen becomes thin and watery.
3. Water from the white passes through the yolk; thus lowering its solids as the vitelline membrane is weakened. Chalaza starts to disintegrate and no longer holds the yolk in the centre.
4. If exposed to air, the moisture evaporates and the air cell increases in size.
5. The egg may absorb off-odours, shell being porous.
6. Fresh yolk is slightly acidic, whereas white is alkaline. Loss of carbon dioxide from the egg results in deterioration.
Storage of eggs
Care must be taken in handling and storage of the eggs. They should be stored in their packing trays with the blunt end upwards and the temperature of 7-13°C, at a relative humidity of 70-80%. This way, it can be kept for a month. It should be kept away from onions, garlic, fish etc. Frozen eggs are stored at -18°C. When defrosted, it should be used in the same day.
Dried eggs stay upto one year, if kept unopened in the original container in a cold dry store room. Once opened, it should be used as quickly as possible.
Treating the eggs with oil or wax before refrigeration also extends its shelf life for several months. An odourless, colourless, tasteless mineral oil is used and the process is done under controlled conditions.
Recently, it has been found that small amount of CO2 passed into the storage rooms prevents the loss of CO2 from the eggs, thus enhances the shelf life.
Shelf life of the eggs can be increased by pasteurization at a temperature of 52-55°C for 3 minutes. Thermostabilization is the process in which the eggs are heated in oil or water at about 54-58°C for about 16 minutes to preserve quality during storage. The whites of thermostabilized eggs are more viscous. It is more difficult to separate the white and yolk. More time is required for whipping. It has low foam volume, which leads to decreased volume of the egg products. Other functional properties are not affected.
Cooking of Eggs
The most important rule of egg cookery is “avoid high temperature and long cooking time”. In other words, don’t overcook eggs. Overcooking produces tough eggs, discolouration and it flavour too. Egg white coagulates at 60-65°C, yolk at 65-70°C, whole beaten egg at 69°C and custard at 79-85°C, depending on the amount of milk used. White coagulates before yolk and hence it is possible to boil eggs with firm white and soft yolk. Coagulation depends on length of heating and the presence of added materials like vinegar and salt, which will speed up the coagulation.
Overcooked eggs are tough and rubbery. When eggs are over-cooked, as in case of scrambled eggs and custards, the egg solids separate from liquids or appear curdled. This is known as weeping of eggs.
Blue ring formation on hard-boiled eggs is caused by cooking too long at high temperatures. This is also seen in scrambled eggs, which are cooked on high temperatures. The iron from the yolk combines with the sulphur from the white to form ferrous sulphide, which has blue colour and strong flavour. To avoid blue ring formation, cook at low temperature and arrest the cooking by plunging in cold water or cracking the shell.
Egg white has the ability to trap or hold air – foaming – which helps to increase to seven times its original volume, when beaten. Beaten egg whites give lightness or raising power to fluffy omelets, pudding and soufflés.
Methods of Cooking
Cooking of Egg
In the Shell
Out of the Shell
Soft cooked
Medium cooked
Hard cooked
Unmixed
Mixed
Coddled Egg 1. Poached
2. Fried (Single or Double)
3. Shirred eggs (Baked in individual dishes and served garnished in the same)
4. Cocottes (Eggs steamed in cocotte dishes on a water bath ) 1. Scrambled eggs
2. Omelets (Plain and foamy)
Poaching
The aim is to keep eggs in compact form, rather than spread out over the pan. This is done on a shallow pan because the water is simmering and not boiling, as boiling disintegrates the egg. 5 gms of salt and 10 ml of vinegar for 1 l of water is advisable. Vinegar helps to increase the coagulation, while salt increases the coagulation temperature. Ideal time for poaching is 3-5 minutes.
Frittata
Frittata is a flat omelet that originated in Italy. Flat omelets are made by mixing beaten eggs with a variety of ingredients such as vegetables, meat or cheese and cooking the mixture over low heat without stirring. To finish, it is either flipped over or flashed under the broiler until the top is set.
Soufflés
Soufflés are similar to foamy omelets except that they have a white sauce basis and have some foods such as grated cheese, vegetable pulp or ground meats used for flavour. The heat coagulated protein of both yolk and white give structure to soufflés. The expansion of air in the egg foam as these products bake causes them to rise and appear puffed. Soufflés are baked in special oven-proof moulds at 117°C and served immediately in the moulds in which they are baked. All soufflés - regardless of flavour – should be light, tender, well blended, of good volume, slightly moist and delicately browned.
Factors affecting the whipping quality of eggs
Season of egg production (Mid-summer eggs beat to lesser volume).
Quality of egg white (Thick whites give more stable foam).
Temperature (Eggs at room temperature whip more quickly and to large volume).
Type of beater (Fine wires divided egg whites easily and air cells remain smaller).
Container (Bowls with small rounded bottoms and sloping sides are preferable as the beater can more easily be pick up the egg mixture. The size of the bowl depends on the quantity of whites to be whipped).
Effect of added substances
Milk prevents foam formation due to the presence of fat. Skimmed milk may be used.
Presence of fat from the yolk, container or beaters may affect the whipping quality.
Salt decreases the volume and stability of the foam and increases the whipping time.
Acids decrease the alkalinity and increase the stability of the foam. Acid may be added after the white has started to get stiff foam of good volume.
Sugar retards denaturation of egg proteins. Add sugar only after the whites are beaten to peaks. Egg white is denatured by beating and heat.
Uses of eggs
Raising agents as in cakes.
Binding agents as in koftas and cutlets.
Flavouring agent (improves taste) as in cakes.
Emulsifying agent helps in mixing of emulsions.
Enrichment in child’s feed.
Rich in nutrients.
First semi-solid food for infants – as easily digestible.
Clarifying agent as in consommé.
Garnishing.
Grading of eggs
(U.S. weight classes for eggs, minimum weight per dozen for each size)
Jumbo Extra large Large Medium Small Peewee
30 oz/
75 Gms/egg
(900 Gms per dozen) 27 oz/
68.5 Gms/egg
(810 Gms per dozen) 24 oz/
60 Gms/egg
(720 Gms per dozen) 21 oz/
52.5 Gms/egg
(630 Gms per dozen) 18 oz/
45 Gms/egg
(540 Gms per dozen) 15 oz/
37.5 Gms/egg
(450 Gms per dozen)
N.B.:1 oz=30 Gms approx.
Structure of eggs
Structure of an Egg
The egg is composed of shell, white and yolk. The egg white forms 2/3rd of the whole egg and the yolk forms 1/3rd.
1. Shell
It is the outer hard covering of the egg and is made up of Calcium, Magnesium carbonate and Calcium phosphate. The shell gives shape to the egg and holds the inner contents. The shell contains thousands of pores that allow CO2 and moisture to escape, as well as air to enter. The shell is covered by a cuticle membrane or Bloom and should not be washed. The bloom acts as protective covering blocking the pores, and prevents moisture loss and bacterial contamination. When eggs are washed before going to the market, the cuticle is removed. To protect the egg, the washed eggs are coated with a thin film of edible oil.
2. Membrane
Beneath the shell, there are two semi permeable membranes - the outer and the inner. These membranes act as a protective layer in case the shell cracks.
3. Air cell
On one side of the egg (broader), both these membranes separate to form an air cell. This is formed by contraction of the contents as soon as the egg is laid, due to the difference in the outside temperature.
4. Egg white
It has 1/8th part of the protein, which is called albumin; the remaining being water. The egg white consists of three parts – the outer thin albumen, the middle thick albumin and the inner thin albumin.
5. Egg yolk
The yolk is separated from the white by a membrane called vitelline membrane. This membrane prevents the mix of both yolk and white. 1/6th parts of the egg yolk contains proteins, 1/3rd fat and the rest water, Vitamins and minerals like Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron etc.
6. Chalaza
The egg is kept in position at the centre of the egg with the help of the chalaza. It has a thick-cord like appearance and is composed of proteins. This chord-like structure may have to be strained while making custards.
Composition of an Egg
Parts Number Weight H2O Proteins Fats
Whole egg 1 50 Gms 74% 13% 12%
Egg white 1 33 Gms 88% 11% Traces
Egg yolk 1 17 Gms 51% 16% 31%
Selection of Eggs+
Colour
The Colour has no direct effect on the quality of the egg. It depends on the breed, the type of bird and the food consumed. However avoid any eggs with patches formed on the surface as they indicate deterioration of eggs.
Size and Weight
It again depends on the type of bird. An average hen’s egg weighs around 50 gms. The weight should be proportional to the size of the egg. If the size is big and the weight is less, the air cell is big, which indicates that the egg is old.
Egg white
It should not be watery but firm. Firm albumen is a sign of freshness.
Egg yolk
Its colour again depends on the type & feed of the bird. The pigment contained is different feeds are different. Birds that feed on green grass or yellow corn will have a dark yellow colour because of the carotinoids present in the grass. However, avoid eggs which have blood spots (meat spots). The blood spot means that the egg is fertilized and nearing hatching (the blood spots caused by the rupture of a blood vessel during egg formation).
Approximately 1% of all eggs will have these spots which are detected and removed during grading. Electronic blood detectors are sometimes used for grading. Although the blood spot may be objectionable to the consumer, the eggs are chemically and nutritionally fit to eat. In fact, the blood spot is an indicator that the egg is fresh. As the egg ages, the yolk removes H2O from the albumen and dilutes the blood spot.
Free from cracks
The egg must be free from cracks. If the egg is cracked, there are chances that the egg is spoilt, since the micro-organisms have an easy access into the egg.
Flavour and Odour
Generally the eggs don’t have any odour from the outside, except that of the packing material, which must not be strong smelling. Sometimes the smell may penetrate into the egg. Hence, eggs are usually stored away from strong flavoured foods like fish, onions, garlic etc.
In order to maintain the standard, size, quality, colour and weight, the distributors buy eggs, usually from on-farm only, where the diet is kept constant.
If the birds are of the same breed and feed, the standard can be maintained.
Test for freshness
There are two basic tests for judging the freshness of an egg externally i.e. without breaking, as stated under:
1. Water treatment
When egg is placed in water and if it floats, then it is stale. If it sinks completely, it is good. If it floats half-way, then the egg is neither too fresh, nor stale. The air cell increases in size as the eggs get older, which results in floating of eggs.
2. Candling
Egg is placed in a dark room before a candle to see the yolk, white and the presence of blood spots, etc. Now a day, most eggs are graded by passing down on roller over high intensity lights. The eggs are rotated as they move on rollers, so that all parts are visible.
Reasons for storage of eggs
1. As soon as the eggs are laid, they start deteriorating as they come in contact with the atmosphere.
2. The dense albumen becomes thin and watery.
3. Water from the white passes through the yolk; thus lowering its solids as the vitelline membrane is weakened. Chalaza starts to disintegrate and no longer holds the yolk in the centre.
4. If exposed to air, the moisture evaporates and the air cell increases in size.
5. The egg may absorb off-odours, shell being porous.
6. Fresh yolk is slightly acidic, whereas white is alkaline. Loss of carbon dioxide from the egg results in deterioration.
Storage of eggs
Care must be taken in handling and storage of the eggs. They should be stored in their packing trays with the blunt end upwards and the temperature of 7-13°C, at a relative humidity of 70-80%. This way, it can be kept for a month. It should be kept away from onions, garlic, fish etc. Frozen eggs are stored at -18°C. When defrosted, it should be used in the same day.
Dried eggs stay upto one year, if kept unopened in the original container in a cold dry store room. Once opened, it should be used as quickly as possible.
Treating the eggs with oil or wax before refrigeration also extends its shelf life for several months. An odourless, colourless, tasteless mineral oil is used and the process is done under controlled conditions.
Recently, it has been found that small amount of CO2 passed into the storage rooms prevents the loss of CO2 from the eggs, thus enhances the shelf life.
Shelf life of the eggs can be increased by pasteurization at a temperature of 52-55°C for 3 minutes. Thermostabilization is the process in which the eggs are heated in oil or water at about 54-58°C for about 16 minutes to preserve quality during storage. The whites of thermostabilized eggs are more viscous. It is more difficult to separate the white and yolk. More time is required for whipping. It has low foam volume, which leads to decreased volume of the egg products. Other functional properties are not affected.
Cooking of Eggs
The most important rule of egg cookery is “avoid high temperature and long cooking time”. In other words, don’t overcook eggs. Overcooking produces tough eggs, discolouration and it flavour too. Egg white coagulates at 60-65°C, yolk at 65-70°C, whole beaten egg at 69°C and custard at 79-85°C, depending on the amount of milk used. White coagulates before yolk and hence it is possible to boil eggs with firm white and soft yolk. Coagulation depends on length of heating and the presence of added materials like vinegar and salt, which will speed up the coagulation.
Overcooked eggs are tough and rubbery. When eggs are over-cooked, as in case of scrambled eggs and custards, the egg solids separate from liquids or appear curdled. This is known as weeping of eggs.
Blue ring formation on hard-boiled eggs is caused by cooking too long at high temperatures. This is also seen in scrambled eggs, which are cooked on high temperatures. The iron from the yolk combines with the sulphur from the white to form ferrous sulphide, which has blue colour and strong flavour. To avoid blue ring formation, cook at low temperature and arrest the cooking by plunging in cold water or cracking the shell.
Egg white has the ability to trap or hold air – foaming – which helps to increase to seven times its original volume, when beaten. Beaten egg whites give lightness or raising power to fluffy omelets, pudding and soufflés.
Methods of Cooking
Cooking of Egg
In the Shell
Out of the Shell
Soft cooked
Medium cooked
Hard cooked
Unmixed
Mixed
Coddled Egg 1. Poached
2. Fried (Single or Double)
3. Shirred eggs (Baked in individual dishes and served garnished in the same)
4. Cocottes (Eggs steamed in cocotte dishes on a water bath ) 1. Scrambled eggs
2. Omelets (Plain and foamy)
Poaching
The aim is to keep eggs in compact form, rather than spread out over the pan. This is done on a shallow pan because the water is simmering and not boiling, as boiling disintegrates the egg. 5 gms of salt and 10 ml of vinegar for 1 l of water is advisable. Vinegar helps to increase the coagulation, while salt increases the coagulation temperature. Ideal time for poaching is 3-5 minutes.
Frittata
Frittata is a flat omelet that originated in Italy. Flat omelets are made by mixing beaten eggs with a variety of ingredients such as vegetables, meat or cheese and cooking the mixture over low heat without stirring. To finish, it is either flipped over or flashed under the broiler until the top is set.
Soufflés
Soufflés are similar to foamy omelets except that they have a white sauce basis and have some foods such as grated cheese, vegetable pulp or ground meats used for flavour. The heat coagulated protein of both yolk and white give structure to soufflés. The expansion of air in the egg foam as these products bake causes them to rise and appear puffed. Soufflés are baked in special oven-proof moulds at 117°C and served immediately in the moulds in which they are baked. All soufflés - regardless of flavour – should be light, tender, well blended, of good volume, slightly moist and delicately browned.
Factors affecting the whipping quality of eggs
Season of egg production (Mid-summer eggs beat to lesser volume).
Quality of egg white (Thick whites give more stable foam).
Temperature (Eggs at room temperature whip more quickly and to large volume).
Type of beater (Fine wires divided egg whites easily and air cells remain smaller).
Container (Bowls with small rounded bottoms and sloping sides are preferable as the beater can more easily be pick up the egg mixture. The size of the bowl depends on the quantity of whites to be whipped).
Effect of added substances
Milk prevents foam formation due to the presence of fat. Skimmed milk may be used.
Presence of fat from the yolk, container or beaters may affect the whipping quality.
Salt decreases the volume and stability of the foam and increases the whipping time.
Acids decrease the alkalinity and increase the stability of the foam. Acid may be added after the white has started to get stiff foam of good volume.
Sugar retards denaturation of egg proteins. Add sugar only after the whites are beaten to peaks. Egg white is denatured by beating and heat.
Uses of eggs
Raising agents as in cakes.
Binding agents as in koftas and cutlets.
Flavouring agent (improves taste) as in cakes.
Emulsifying agent helps in mixing of emulsions.
Enrichment in child’s feed.
Rich in nutrients.
First semi-solid food for infants – as easily digestible.
Clarifying agent as in consommé.
Garnishing.
CREAM
Cream is the fat separated from milk. It is the lighter portion of milk containing all the main constituents of milk, but in which fat content is high and the solid (non fat) content is lower.
Cream is commercially separated from milk in a creamery, by means of a mechanical separator. The milk is first heated to between 32-49°C (90-120°F) before being run into the separator which operates like centrifugal machine, rotating at very high speed and forcing the milk, which is heavier, to the outside; while the cream, which is lighter, remains at the centre. The cream and the skimmed milk are drained out through separate outlets and by means of a control valve, the fat content is adjusted. The skimmed milk is then heated to 79.5°C (175°F) to kill off any harmful bacteria before being further processed into dried milk etc.
Types of Cream
There are a variety of creams available in the market, each having a different fat content:
Type of Cream Fat Content
Single Cream 18%
Whipping Cream 35%
Double Cream 48%
Double Thick Cream 50%
Sterilized Half Cream 12%
Sterilized Cream 23%
Clotted Cream 55%
For general purposes, cream may be classified into:
1. Whipping Cream (>30% fat).
2. Light or Coffee Cream (18% fat).
3. Half-and-half (10.5% fat).
4. Non-dairy or Manufactured Cream.
Half-and-half is a mixture of milk and light cream and it may be used in place of coffee cream. Cream containing sugar, stabilizers and flavouring is sold in pressurized containers. Non-dairy products containing water, vegetable fat, sugar, sodium caseinate, emulsifiers and vegetable gums are also available in pressurized cans. Nondairy products for whipped toppings, coffee, whiteners and snack dip bases are also available in the market.
Manufactured Cream
1. Reconstituted Cream
It is made by emulsifying butter with skimmed milk or skimmed milk powder. This is not true cream, but a substance which resembles it in appearance.
2. Imitation or Synthetic Cream
It is made by the emulsification of vegetable fats with dried egg and gelatin, and then sugar and flavourings are added. It is a product which is frequently used in catering and baking trade, but which is very easily contaminated and liable to cause food-poisoning.
Uses of Cream
1. To serve with hot or cold coffee and chocolate.
2. To serve as an accompaniment (fruit based salad).
3. To be used fro decorative purposes in cakes and gateaux and for garnishes in soups and desserts.
4. As a main ingredient in certain desserts such as ice-cream and custards.
Storage of Cream
Fresh cream must be treated in the same way as fresh milk, as far as storage is concerned. Whipped cream must be covered and stored in sterilized containers in the refrigerator and used in the same day. Reconstituted and intimation cream must be refrigerated and only small quantities be whipped, when required for immediate use.
The whipping of Cream
Whipping cream is a product that results from the agitation of cream. During whipping, air is incorporated, thus forming foam, and fat particles are clumped together, producing the characteristic stiffness or rigidity of whipped cream. If whipping is continued too long, the emulsion breaks and butter gets separated. The air bubbles formed in whipped cream are surrounded by protein films in which clumps of fat globules offer structural support, which increases the rigidity of the foam and permits the formation of more air bubbles and the extension of the protein film to surround them. Homogenized cream is not suitable for whipping.
Points to be considered while whipping Cream
1. Use cream with minimum 30% fat for ease in whipping and for a stiff product. Increased fat upto 38% improves the whipping quality of cream.
2. Hold cream at low temperature (7°C) whips well. Lower temperature increases viscosity, which increases the whipping property. The beater and the bowl used should be cold.
3. Whipping property improves with the aging of cream, as viscosity increases.
4. Homogenized cream will not whip satisfactorily. When whipping cream, tiny air bubbles are trapped and surrounded by the fat globules in the cream. Homogenized cream will have had the majority of the fat globules broken down and they will not be sufficient and strong enough to trap and hold the air cells.
5. The utensils must be sterilized. Glass or stainless steel containers are ideal for whipping cream. Avoid using aluminum as it tends to discolour the cream, turning it a dull grey.
6. Increased acidity upto the concentration required to give a sour taste (0.3%) has no effect on whipping quality.
7. Addition of sugar decreases both volume and stiffness and increases time required to whip cream if it is added before whipping. If sugar is to be added, it is best added after the cream is stiff or just before service.
Cream is commercially separated from milk in a creamery, by means of a mechanical separator. The milk is first heated to between 32-49°C (90-120°F) before being run into the separator which operates like centrifugal machine, rotating at very high speed and forcing the milk, which is heavier, to the outside; while the cream, which is lighter, remains at the centre. The cream and the skimmed milk are drained out through separate outlets and by means of a control valve, the fat content is adjusted. The skimmed milk is then heated to 79.5°C (175°F) to kill off any harmful bacteria before being further processed into dried milk etc.
Types of Cream
There are a variety of creams available in the market, each having a different fat content:
Type of Cream Fat Content
Single Cream 18%
Whipping Cream 35%
Double Cream 48%
Double Thick Cream 50%
Sterilized Half Cream 12%
Sterilized Cream 23%
Clotted Cream 55%
For general purposes, cream may be classified into:
1. Whipping Cream (>30% fat).
2. Light or Coffee Cream (18% fat).
3. Half-and-half (10.5% fat).
4. Non-dairy or Manufactured Cream.
Half-and-half is a mixture of milk and light cream and it may be used in place of coffee cream. Cream containing sugar, stabilizers and flavouring is sold in pressurized containers. Non-dairy products containing water, vegetable fat, sugar, sodium caseinate, emulsifiers and vegetable gums are also available in pressurized cans. Nondairy products for whipped toppings, coffee, whiteners and snack dip bases are also available in the market.
Manufactured Cream
1. Reconstituted Cream
It is made by emulsifying butter with skimmed milk or skimmed milk powder. This is not true cream, but a substance which resembles it in appearance.
2. Imitation or Synthetic Cream
It is made by the emulsification of vegetable fats with dried egg and gelatin, and then sugar and flavourings are added. It is a product which is frequently used in catering and baking trade, but which is very easily contaminated and liable to cause food-poisoning.
Uses of Cream
1. To serve with hot or cold coffee and chocolate.
2. To serve as an accompaniment (fruit based salad).
3. To be used fro decorative purposes in cakes and gateaux and for garnishes in soups and desserts.
4. As a main ingredient in certain desserts such as ice-cream and custards.
Storage of Cream
Fresh cream must be treated in the same way as fresh milk, as far as storage is concerned. Whipped cream must be covered and stored in sterilized containers in the refrigerator and used in the same day. Reconstituted and intimation cream must be refrigerated and only small quantities be whipped, when required for immediate use.
The whipping of Cream
Whipping cream is a product that results from the agitation of cream. During whipping, air is incorporated, thus forming foam, and fat particles are clumped together, producing the characteristic stiffness or rigidity of whipped cream. If whipping is continued too long, the emulsion breaks and butter gets separated. The air bubbles formed in whipped cream are surrounded by protein films in which clumps of fat globules offer structural support, which increases the rigidity of the foam and permits the formation of more air bubbles and the extension of the protein film to surround them. Homogenized cream is not suitable for whipping.
Points to be considered while whipping Cream
1. Use cream with minimum 30% fat for ease in whipping and for a stiff product. Increased fat upto 38% improves the whipping quality of cream.
2. Hold cream at low temperature (7°C) whips well. Lower temperature increases viscosity, which increases the whipping property. The beater and the bowl used should be cold.
3. Whipping property improves with the aging of cream, as viscosity increases.
4. Homogenized cream will not whip satisfactorily. When whipping cream, tiny air bubbles are trapped and surrounded by the fat globules in the cream. Homogenized cream will have had the majority of the fat globules broken down and they will not be sufficient and strong enough to trap and hold the air cells.
5. The utensils must be sterilized. Glass or stainless steel containers are ideal for whipping cream. Avoid using aluminum as it tends to discolour the cream, turning it a dull grey.
6. Increased acidity upto the concentration required to give a sour taste (0.3%) has no effect on whipping quality.
7. Addition of sugar decreases both volume and stiffness and increases time required to whip cream if it is added before whipping. If sugar is to be added, it is best added after the cream is stiff or just before service.
COFFEE
The coffee plant is an evergreen tree/bush, which is grown commercially in tropical climates throughout the world. It requires not only a hot climate, but also high rainfall, a rich soil and a high altitude. The coffee plant is unable to survive any wide variations in temperature or frost conditions. The part of the plant that is used in coffee production and processing is the coffee berry. Commercially, there are three varieties of berries that are grown:
1. Coffee Arabica
Supplies the largest and the best quality of coffee. It has a bold regular sized bean and a fine flavour. It is very prone to disease and requires careful cultivation. It grows in Brazil, Colombia, Kenya, Jamaica and India.
2. Coffee Robusta
Produces the second most popular coffee. The beans are generally smaller and of lower quality. It is a more hardy plant, has higher yield, is disease resistant and is grown in East and West Africa.
3. Coffee Liberica
Produces the third main type of coffee. It is a hardy and robust plant and sometimes grows wild. The beans are large in size, but of an inferior quality.
The main exporting countries of the coffee beans are Brazil, Uganda, Columbia, Kenya, the Ivory Coast and the Congo.
Classification of Coffee
Coffee may be classified under the following headings:
1. By their country of origin (Kenya, Brazil).
2. By their type (Robusta, Arabica, Liberica).
3. By the grade of the beans (Inferior or Superior).
4. By the method of processing (Wet or Dry).
5. By the blend (Coffee mixtures with chicory or figs).
6. By the catering use (For espresso machines, vending machines, for bakery and confectionary).
Processing of Coffee
When the berries are ripe, they are picked by hand and taken or exported to the processing plant. The berries are about the size of a small cherry and consist of an external red skin, a layer of pulp, a tough parchment like inner membrane, a thin silver skin and finally two beans – rounded on one side and flat on the other – with the flat sides pressed against each other. Depending on the country where the processing takes place, either one of the following methods will be used:
1. The Dry Method
It is used in the country which don’t have abundant water supply or where the value of cured beans doesn’t warrant the extra costs of washing. The berries are spread out thinly in the sun and left till the pulp shrivels tightly onto the parchment and allowed to dry. The berries are then put through a hulling machine, which removes the parchment and the pulp in one stage. Very little sorting of the berries is done and some may carry traces of the silver skin and lack the appearance of the washed beans.
2. The Wet Method
This method is used in countries which have a sufficient water supply and where the quality of the bean grown warrants extra processing costs. The berries are put through a de-pulping machine to remove the fleshy part of the berry leaving the two seeds in their jackets. They are then placed in large vats and are allowed to ferment partially for 24-40 hours. This fermentation serves two purposes. It helps to develop the aroma of the cooked coffee and also helps to remove any adhering pulp. When the fermentation stage is complete, the beans are thoroughly washed and then spread out in the sun to dry completely. The next stage is the removal of the parchment by machines, to leave just the clean olive green beans.
Grading
The coffee grades vary with the country of origin, with letters or sometimes with the numbers used. It is usually accepted that the largest normal shaped beans are best quality and possess a fuller flavour, aroma and body than the other beans.
Coffee Roasting
The green coffee bean has little or no flavour. The flavour, aroma and colour of liquid coffee are developed by roasting the coffee beans, which causes the cell walls to be ruptures, making the flavouring and the aromatic qualities of the natural oil content readily available to extraction by hot water. Roasting can vary from light to dark. A dark roast gives a slightly bitter characteristic and is widely used for espresso and after-dinner coffee. A light roast gives a mild taste, suitable for general purposes. Roasted coffee beans are cooked and are liable to deterioration. Any beans not used immediately after roasting, must be stored in an air-tight container.
Coffee Grinding
The roasted coffee bean is next ground to enable the flavour, aroma and colour to be easily extracted. The degree to which the coffee beans are ground is related to the type of coffee making-equipment that is being used. Finer the grains are, stronger/bitter is the flavour. Prolonged infusion doesn’t add anything of advantage except possibly bitterness.
Ground coffee deteriorates even faster than the roasted beans. This is because the flavouring oils are highly volatile. Ground coffee will lose 20% of its freshness in one day and upto 50% in three weeks, if not stored in an air-tight container. Moreover, it will develop certain staleness as a result of volatile oils being easily oxidized.
Coffee Blending
Many coffee blends are available from coffee merchants (breakfast, mid-morning or after-dinner use). The blending is carefully done by experts in a manner similar to tea tasting and blending, to produce a standard product of high quality, flavour, aroma and colour, and available throughout the year at a standard price.
Coffee Mixtures
Some well known blends of coffee are a blend of coffee with either chicory or figs. French coffee is a blend of coffee and chicory. Viennese coffee is a blend of dried and roasted figs and coffee. Chicory helps to lower the costs and help to produce a smoother and sweeter liquid.
Instant Coffee
This is the convenient form of coffee most widely used today. No special equipment is required and the product is of an acceptable standard. Instant coffee is pure coffee concentrate, which is atomized to a fine mist in a drying chamber containing hot air. Accelerated freeze dry method has produced an instant coffee that resembles the freshly ground coffee and which dissolves completely quickly.
Caffeine Free Coffee
Caffeine is an alkaloid substance, which produces the stimulating effect in a cup of coffee. It is also responsible for the bitterness of coffee. 87% of the caffeine can be removed by processing the green beans under steam in a vacuum. It is ideal for persons with heart ailments and those who have been advised not to drink regular coffee. Decaffeinated coffee, by law, must not contain more than 0.1% of caffeine.
Coffee Concentrates
These are concentrated extracts of coffee, mainly used as a flavouring agent in commercial bakery and confectionary production.
Coffee Bags
These are similar to tea-bags and contain freshly ground coffee and some instant coffee.
Catering Packs
These are similar to catering packs for tea and will produce a specific quantity of coffee. The variety of blends, degree of roasting and grinding gives the caterer a very wide choice.
Storage
Care must be taken with regards to the storage of coffee. Since the flavouring oils are volatile, some flavour is lost after roasting and then again after grinding. Coffee powder should ideally be vacuum- packed and then stored in sealed airtight containers.
Preparation of Coffee Beverage
Good coffee can be made by several methods. The chief factor is the control of the method in order to avoid the loss of flavour and the extraction of indigestible amount of bitter substance.
Filtration
The drip pot consists of an upper compartment, which is perforated and lower compartment, which is a receiver for the filtered beverage. The perforations of the upper compartment are covered with thin filter paper or with cheesecloth to prevent the passage of coffee into the beverage. By this method, the water filters through the coffee into the lower compartment.
Another type of pot commonly used for filtration is the Vacuum Coffee Maker. The upper compartment, which holds the coffee, has an open tube that extends to the bottom of the lower compartment by the help of a cloth covered disc, held over the tube opening. Water is heated in the lower compartment for a particular period of time, until most of the water rises into the upper compartment. The pot is kept aside until all the water filters through the coffee and passes back into the lower compartment. Coffee beverage is heated and served.
Percolation
The percolator includes a pot, a coffee basket and a hollow stem to support the basket. Measured coffee is placed in the basket, which is placed on the steam, and then both are inserted into the pot. When heat is applied, the water is forced up by steam and spreads over the coffee basket onto the coffee, and down into the pot. Only a small portion of the water at any one time reaches the basket. When percolation begins, the heat is adjusted so that water reaches the top of the basket about every two seconds. This gentle percolation is continued for six to eight minutes, until the desired strength is achieved.
Boiling or Steeping
Although coffee made by this method is usually described as boiled, the beverage made by heating the coffee and water together is more desirable in flavour, if not actually allowed to boil. Steeping (extracting flavour below boiling point) extracts much less of the bitter substances from coffee than boiling. The length of time of steeping varies with the temperature of water mixed with the coffee.
Steps in Coffee Making
Coffee is made by extracting flavours from ground coffee by dissolving it in hot water. The essence of making good coffee is to extract enough of these solids to make flavourful beverage, but not to brew so long as to make the coffee bitter. Points to be observed are as listed:
Use fresh coffee.
Use the right grind and the right brewing grind. A coarse grind requires more time for extraction than a fine grind.
Grind Extraction Time
Fine or Vacuum 2-4 minutes
Drip or Urn 4-6 minutes
Percolator 6-8 minutes
Use the right proportions.
Use fresh water.
Use water at the right brewing temperature [90°C to 93°C (195°F to 200°F)].
Use a good brewing procedure.
Use clean equipment.
Use good filters.
Use proper holding procedures.
Don’t hold coffee for more than an hour.
Different types of Coffee served
Cona Coffee/Vacuum Infusion
This method of making coffee has considerable visual appeal and has the advantage that the coffee is served always fresh as only limited quantities are made at one time. The method of making coffee is similar to the percolator method. The lower bowl is filled with cold water or freshly heated water. The filter is placed in the upper bowl and the required quantity of coffee is added to the amount of water being used. The upper bowl is then set in the lower bowl, making sure it is securely in place, and the ware is heated. As the water reaches its boiling point, it rises up into the upper bowl, mixing with the ground coffee. It may be carefully stirred at this stage. On reducing the heat, the coffee, liquid passes back into the lower bowl, leaving the coffee grounds in the upper bowl. The coffee in the lower bowl is ready for use and should be served at 82°C, with hot or cold milk or cream and sugar.
Espresso Coffee
This method, Italian in origin, involves passing steam through the finely ground coffee and infusing under pressure. Each cup of coffee is made freshly for the customer and served black in small cups.
Cappuccino Coffee
Cappuccino coffee is prepared by the addition of milk heated by a high pressure steam injector. It comprises of equal parts of espresso and hot milk topped with cinnamon and nutmeg and usually whipped cream.
Turkish Coffee
It is made from darkly roasted and ground Mocha beans. Water is boiled in special copper pots and sugar is added at this stage, as this coffee is never stirred once poured out. Finely ground coffee may be added or boiled water poured onto the grounds. Once the coffee has been stirred in, the copper pot is taken off the direct heat and the cooling causes the grounds to settle. It is brought to boil and allowed to settle twice more and is then sprinkled with cold water to settle any remaining grains. The coffee is served in small cups. Vanilla pods may be added to flavour the coffee.
Iced Coffee
It is a strong black coffee served with an equal quantity of cold milk or cream. It is served in a tall glass, with ice cubes.
Irish Coffee
Strong black coffee is poured into a Paris goblet with sugar in it. One measure of Irish whiskey mixed in and double cream is poured slowly over the back of a spoon onto the surface of the coffee. The coffee must not be stirred – the best flavour is obtained by drinking the whiskey flavoured coffee through the cream. If brandy is used instead of whiskey, the coffee is known as Café Royala.
1. Coffee Arabica
Supplies the largest and the best quality of coffee. It has a bold regular sized bean and a fine flavour. It is very prone to disease and requires careful cultivation. It grows in Brazil, Colombia, Kenya, Jamaica and India.
2. Coffee Robusta
Produces the second most popular coffee. The beans are generally smaller and of lower quality. It is a more hardy plant, has higher yield, is disease resistant and is grown in East and West Africa.
3. Coffee Liberica
Produces the third main type of coffee. It is a hardy and robust plant and sometimes grows wild. The beans are large in size, but of an inferior quality.
The main exporting countries of the coffee beans are Brazil, Uganda, Columbia, Kenya, the Ivory Coast and the Congo.
Classification of Coffee
Coffee may be classified under the following headings:
1. By their country of origin (Kenya, Brazil).
2. By their type (Robusta, Arabica, Liberica).
3. By the grade of the beans (Inferior or Superior).
4. By the method of processing (Wet or Dry).
5. By the blend (Coffee mixtures with chicory or figs).
6. By the catering use (For espresso machines, vending machines, for bakery and confectionary).
Processing of Coffee
When the berries are ripe, they are picked by hand and taken or exported to the processing plant. The berries are about the size of a small cherry and consist of an external red skin, a layer of pulp, a tough parchment like inner membrane, a thin silver skin and finally two beans – rounded on one side and flat on the other – with the flat sides pressed against each other. Depending on the country where the processing takes place, either one of the following methods will be used:
1. The Dry Method
It is used in the country which don’t have abundant water supply or where the value of cured beans doesn’t warrant the extra costs of washing. The berries are spread out thinly in the sun and left till the pulp shrivels tightly onto the parchment and allowed to dry. The berries are then put through a hulling machine, which removes the parchment and the pulp in one stage. Very little sorting of the berries is done and some may carry traces of the silver skin and lack the appearance of the washed beans.
2. The Wet Method
This method is used in countries which have a sufficient water supply and where the quality of the bean grown warrants extra processing costs. The berries are put through a de-pulping machine to remove the fleshy part of the berry leaving the two seeds in their jackets. They are then placed in large vats and are allowed to ferment partially for 24-40 hours. This fermentation serves two purposes. It helps to develop the aroma of the cooked coffee and also helps to remove any adhering pulp. When the fermentation stage is complete, the beans are thoroughly washed and then spread out in the sun to dry completely. The next stage is the removal of the parchment by machines, to leave just the clean olive green beans.
Grading
The coffee grades vary with the country of origin, with letters or sometimes with the numbers used. It is usually accepted that the largest normal shaped beans are best quality and possess a fuller flavour, aroma and body than the other beans.
Coffee Roasting
The green coffee bean has little or no flavour. The flavour, aroma and colour of liquid coffee are developed by roasting the coffee beans, which causes the cell walls to be ruptures, making the flavouring and the aromatic qualities of the natural oil content readily available to extraction by hot water. Roasting can vary from light to dark. A dark roast gives a slightly bitter characteristic and is widely used for espresso and after-dinner coffee. A light roast gives a mild taste, suitable for general purposes. Roasted coffee beans are cooked and are liable to deterioration. Any beans not used immediately after roasting, must be stored in an air-tight container.
Coffee Grinding
The roasted coffee bean is next ground to enable the flavour, aroma and colour to be easily extracted. The degree to which the coffee beans are ground is related to the type of coffee making-equipment that is being used. Finer the grains are, stronger/bitter is the flavour. Prolonged infusion doesn’t add anything of advantage except possibly bitterness.
Ground coffee deteriorates even faster than the roasted beans. This is because the flavouring oils are highly volatile. Ground coffee will lose 20% of its freshness in one day and upto 50% in three weeks, if not stored in an air-tight container. Moreover, it will develop certain staleness as a result of volatile oils being easily oxidized.
Coffee Blending
Many coffee blends are available from coffee merchants (breakfast, mid-morning or after-dinner use). The blending is carefully done by experts in a manner similar to tea tasting and blending, to produce a standard product of high quality, flavour, aroma and colour, and available throughout the year at a standard price.
Coffee Mixtures
Some well known blends of coffee are a blend of coffee with either chicory or figs. French coffee is a blend of coffee and chicory. Viennese coffee is a blend of dried and roasted figs and coffee. Chicory helps to lower the costs and help to produce a smoother and sweeter liquid.
Instant Coffee
This is the convenient form of coffee most widely used today. No special equipment is required and the product is of an acceptable standard. Instant coffee is pure coffee concentrate, which is atomized to a fine mist in a drying chamber containing hot air. Accelerated freeze dry method has produced an instant coffee that resembles the freshly ground coffee and which dissolves completely quickly.
Caffeine Free Coffee
Caffeine is an alkaloid substance, which produces the stimulating effect in a cup of coffee. It is also responsible for the bitterness of coffee. 87% of the caffeine can be removed by processing the green beans under steam in a vacuum. It is ideal for persons with heart ailments and those who have been advised not to drink regular coffee. Decaffeinated coffee, by law, must not contain more than 0.1% of caffeine.
Coffee Concentrates
These are concentrated extracts of coffee, mainly used as a flavouring agent in commercial bakery and confectionary production.
Coffee Bags
These are similar to tea-bags and contain freshly ground coffee and some instant coffee.
Catering Packs
These are similar to catering packs for tea and will produce a specific quantity of coffee. The variety of blends, degree of roasting and grinding gives the caterer a very wide choice.
Storage
Care must be taken with regards to the storage of coffee. Since the flavouring oils are volatile, some flavour is lost after roasting and then again after grinding. Coffee powder should ideally be vacuum- packed and then stored in sealed airtight containers.
Preparation of Coffee Beverage
Good coffee can be made by several methods. The chief factor is the control of the method in order to avoid the loss of flavour and the extraction of indigestible amount of bitter substance.
Filtration
The drip pot consists of an upper compartment, which is perforated and lower compartment, which is a receiver for the filtered beverage. The perforations of the upper compartment are covered with thin filter paper or with cheesecloth to prevent the passage of coffee into the beverage. By this method, the water filters through the coffee into the lower compartment.
Another type of pot commonly used for filtration is the Vacuum Coffee Maker. The upper compartment, which holds the coffee, has an open tube that extends to the bottom of the lower compartment by the help of a cloth covered disc, held over the tube opening. Water is heated in the lower compartment for a particular period of time, until most of the water rises into the upper compartment. The pot is kept aside until all the water filters through the coffee and passes back into the lower compartment. Coffee beverage is heated and served.
Percolation
The percolator includes a pot, a coffee basket and a hollow stem to support the basket. Measured coffee is placed in the basket, which is placed on the steam, and then both are inserted into the pot. When heat is applied, the water is forced up by steam and spreads over the coffee basket onto the coffee, and down into the pot. Only a small portion of the water at any one time reaches the basket. When percolation begins, the heat is adjusted so that water reaches the top of the basket about every two seconds. This gentle percolation is continued for six to eight minutes, until the desired strength is achieved.
Boiling or Steeping
Although coffee made by this method is usually described as boiled, the beverage made by heating the coffee and water together is more desirable in flavour, if not actually allowed to boil. Steeping (extracting flavour below boiling point) extracts much less of the bitter substances from coffee than boiling. The length of time of steeping varies with the temperature of water mixed with the coffee.
Steps in Coffee Making
Coffee is made by extracting flavours from ground coffee by dissolving it in hot water. The essence of making good coffee is to extract enough of these solids to make flavourful beverage, but not to brew so long as to make the coffee bitter. Points to be observed are as listed:
Use fresh coffee.
Use the right grind and the right brewing grind. A coarse grind requires more time for extraction than a fine grind.
Grind Extraction Time
Fine or Vacuum 2-4 minutes
Drip or Urn 4-6 minutes
Percolator 6-8 minutes
Use the right proportions.
Use fresh water.
Use water at the right brewing temperature [90°C to 93°C (195°F to 200°F)].
Use a good brewing procedure.
Use clean equipment.
Use good filters.
Use proper holding procedures.
Don’t hold coffee for more than an hour.
Different types of Coffee served
Cona Coffee/Vacuum Infusion
This method of making coffee has considerable visual appeal and has the advantage that the coffee is served always fresh as only limited quantities are made at one time. The method of making coffee is similar to the percolator method. The lower bowl is filled with cold water or freshly heated water. The filter is placed in the upper bowl and the required quantity of coffee is added to the amount of water being used. The upper bowl is then set in the lower bowl, making sure it is securely in place, and the ware is heated. As the water reaches its boiling point, it rises up into the upper bowl, mixing with the ground coffee. It may be carefully stirred at this stage. On reducing the heat, the coffee, liquid passes back into the lower bowl, leaving the coffee grounds in the upper bowl. The coffee in the lower bowl is ready for use and should be served at 82°C, with hot or cold milk or cream and sugar.
Espresso Coffee
This method, Italian in origin, involves passing steam through the finely ground coffee and infusing under pressure. Each cup of coffee is made freshly for the customer and served black in small cups.
Cappuccino Coffee
Cappuccino coffee is prepared by the addition of milk heated by a high pressure steam injector. It comprises of equal parts of espresso and hot milk topped with cinnamon and nutmeg and usually whipped cream.
Turkish Coffee
It is made from darkly roasted and ground Mocha beans. Water is boiled in special copper pots and sugar is added at this stage, as this coffee is never stirred once poured out. Finely ground coffee may be added or boiled water poured onto the grounds. Once the coffee has been stirred in, the copper pot is taken off the direct heat and the cooling causes the grounds to settle. It is brought to boil and allowed to settle twice more and is then sprinkled with cold water to settle any remaining grains. The coffee is served in small cups. Vanilla pods may be added to flavour the coffee.
Iced Coffee
It is a strong black coffee served with an equal quantity of cold milk or cream. It is served in a tall glass, with ice cubes.
Irish Coffee
Strong black coffee is poured into a Paris goblet with sugar in it. One measure of Irish whiskey mixed in and double cream is poured slowly over the back of a spoon onto the surface of the coffee. The coffee must not be stirred – the best flavour is obtained by drinking the whiskey flavoured coffee through the cream. If brandy is used instead of whiskey, the coffee is known as Café Royala.
COCOA
The cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) is a native of the dense tropical forests of the Amazon. The term “Theobroma” means “food of the Gods”. The word cocoa has originated from the Aztec word “Cacahuati”. Cocoa describes the bulk commercially dried, fermented beans, as well as powder from cocoa beans. The main procedures and exporters of the cocoa bean are West Africa (74% of the world production), North, Central and South Africa (21%) and Asia and Australia (3%). However the processing of the bean into chocolate is done in several other countries and some of the best chocolate is produced in Belgium, Switzerland and France.
The Cocoa Plant
The cocoa plant is a small tropical tree, originally grown in South and Central America; but now commercially grown in West Africa. The cocoa tree requires a good soil, a huge rainfall and a low altitude. The part of the plant that is processed and used for the making of cocoa and chocolate is the fruit that grows on the main trunk of the tree, as well as on the branches. The fruit is a large pod 4“ to 12“ in length and about 4“ in diameter and has a hard leathery rind containing 25-75 seeds in distinct rows, embedded in a soft pulp.
Classification
Cocoa may be classified under the following headings:
1. By the country of origin (Zambia/Mozambique).
2. By the species of the bean (Criollo/Forastero).
3. By the method of manufacture (For drinking chocolate/for milk chocolate).
4. By their particular use (Vending machines/Icings/Chocolate moulding).
Processing of Cocoa
The processing of cocoa bean into cocoa powder is done in seven stages, as mentioned under:
1. Fermentation of the Beans
The ripe cocoa pods are collected and split open and the beans and the pulp surrounding them are scooped out and put into a fermentation chamber, also called the sweat boxes, where the temperature is allowed to rise to 40 to 50°C (104 to 122°F). Fermentation will kill the germs and prevent germination and decomposition of the bean. It will also encourage enzyme reaction reducing the bitterness and developing flavour. The beans absorb the liquid from the fermenting sugary pulp which will then turn into alcohol and finally into acetic acid. As soon as the mass turns into the acid state, the fermentation is stopped. Otherwise unpleasant flavours and odours will develop.
2. Drying of the Beans
This is done by laying the beans thinly out in the Sun to dry and occasionally turning them over, or by passing them through a mechanical drying chamber. When completely dried, there will not be more than 4% moisture in the bean. At this stage, beans are exported, unless they are to be processed into cocoa chocolate.
3. Roasting the Beans
This stage is essential to develop the flavour and the aroma of the bean and to give colour. Moisture is lost at the stage, which assists in the removal of the shell from the beans.
4. Removing the Shell
This stage is also called “Winnowing”. The shell is removed from the bean by passing them through a series of rollers and sieves. The de-shelled beans, now mostly broken bits and pieces, are referred to as “Nibs”.
5. Alkalization of the Nibs (Dutch Processing)
This stage, that further develops the flavour and colour, is usually done by tumbling the nibs in an alkali solution. After drying, the nibs may be roasted to correct the moisture content.
6. Grinding the nibs
The nibs are now ground into very small particles, a process which releases a large amount of fat and results in the mass becoming a thick syrup. This fat is known as “Cocoa Butter”, usually 50% of the nibs.
7. Extraction of the Cocoa Butter
The cocoa fluid/mass is then fed into large felt lined steel pans fitted with a movable perforated lid. When subjected to hydraulic pressure, some of the fat is forced through the filter cloths, leaving behind a solid residue, known as the “Press Cake”. This is removed from the pan, allowed to cool, then pulverized and sieved. TO this fine powder, a small amount of salt and vanilla is usually added before it is marketed as the popular cocoa powder.
Plain Chocolate
The processing of chocolate involves the first six stages as for the processing of cocoa and then a further three stages:
1. Mixing the Cocoa mass with sugar
The cocoa mass is thoroughly mixed with powdered sugar in large blending kettles. The fat content is strictly controlled to obtain a standard product. Additional cocoa butter may be added to adjust the consistency.
2. Refining the mixture
This is done by passing the mixture through a series of five heavy rollers to reduce the size of the non-fat particles, so that the chocolate will be smooth to the palate. This stage exposes the particles to the air, reducing the moisture content, partially evaporating volatile substances, and lightening the colour of the mixture.
3. Conching
The final stage is concerned with producing a standard quality of chocolate. Conching is the mechanical agitation of the chocolate mass with additional cocoa butter at a temperature of 60-70°C (140-158°F). This will further evaporate volatile substances and also develop the flavour. Additional flavourings may also be added at this stage and the mixture is standardized. The chocolate is then set in moulds such as bars, slabs and is also known as courverture.
A chocolate in block has a tendency to collect moisture from the air and this can be seen in the form of beads of perspiration. This could be wiped carefully and well scraped before being used for dipping.
Milk Chocolate
The processing of milk chocolate is the same as Plain Chocolate (courverture), except that milk crumb is added at the refining stage and the conching is done at a lower temperature, but for a longer time. Milk crumb is a mixture of condensed milk and chocolate mass, reduced to a powder form.
Cocoa Powder
It is a product obtained by grinding roasted cocoa beans to an oily liquid, pressing this in a cocoa-butter press, to remove about half cocoa butter and then grinding the residual press cake to a powder. Chocolate powder is a blend of true cocoa powder, sugar and starch.
Drinking Chocolate
It is a modern beverage drink, prepared from the chocolate powder or chocolate flakes and made in similar manner to the cocoa drink, by adding hot water or milk.
White Chocolate
It is a product composed of pure cocoa butter, full of cream milk powder and sugar, milled together and passed through refining rolls. As pure cocoa butter has a strong taste and odour of chocolate, the product is similar in flavour to chocolate. It can be tempered and molded. Provided fat-soluble edible colours are used, white chocolate can be coloured pink, orange, yellow or green.
Chocolate Spread
It is permanently soft, pasty or semi-liquid product, which can be used in bakery as flavouring and colouring material for fillings, butter creams and fondants. To make it, add warmed golden syrup to melted chocolate courverture in the proportion of two parts of syrup to one part of courverture, mixing them thoroughly and adding the warm syrup into glass or glazed earthen ware jars and kept for use as needed.
Panache
It is the name given to a blend of chocolate and cream. Boiling fresh cream is mixed with grated or melted courverture and stirred occasionally till cooled.
Composition of Cocoa and Chocolate
Theobromine is the stimulant in cocoa and chocolate, along with some caffeine. The other major constituents of cocoa and chocolate include colour and flavour compounds, lipids and carbohydrate. The purple colour is due to the presence of anthocyanins. The chocolate flavour is contributed by the phenolic compounds.
Starch is the chief carbohydrate in cocoa and chocolate and functions as a thickening agent. Cocoa contains 11% starch while chocolate contains 8%. Cocoa has more thickening power than chocolate because of its high starch content. For this very reason, cocoa is not substituted on a direct weight basis for chocolate. Usually 3-3.5 tablespoon of cocoa powder plus ½ table spoon of fat are considered equivalent to 30 Gms of chocolate.
Fat constituent of cocoa and chocolate is cocoa butter. Cocoa varies in fat content from 10-22%. Chocolate contains 50% fat. The low melting temperature of chocolate (near 32°C) imparts a smooth texture and readily releases flavour components.
Uses of Chocolate
Cocoa powder and Chocolate powder are used:
1. As a hot beverage.
2. AS a flavouring agent.
3. As a colouring agent.
4. For hot and cold sauces.
Courverture is used:
1. As a coating.
2. As a decoration (Piping).
3. For moulding into Easter eggs etc.
4. For sauces.
5. For ice-creams.
Storage
Cocoa and chocolate deteriorate quickly in the presence of moisture and heat. Cocoa becomes grayish in colour and lumpy when stored at temperature above 16-21°C and in high humidity.
A mottled or grey surface known as bloom may develop on the chocolate when it is exposed to high heat and moisture. The melting fat and re-crystallizing in a different pattern on the surface contribute to the formation of bloom.
Appropriate tempering procedures during processing and the use of stabilizers retards the development of bloom. Sugar bloom, a rough greyish layer, may develop on sweet chocolate due to moisture; the dissolved sugar re-crystallizes on the surface.
The chocolate flavour appears not to be altered by the development of bloom or lumping of cocoa products, but the texture may be grainy. Milk chocolates also absorb flavours and odours when stored improperly. The quality of cocoa and chocolate is best when high temperature and humidity is avoided. The best protection is tightly sealed containers kept in a cool, dry place.
Nutritional Aspect
Cocoa powder and milk chocolate are rich in fats and carbohydrates. Being a highly palatable and energy concentrated food, it was used extensively in emergency situations such as wars and during rescue and evacuation situations.
Chocolate Tempering
Chocolate tempering is a process used to prepare pure chocolate liquor for cooking purposes. During tempering, it is essential that not one drop of water should come into contact with the chocolate
Procedure
Break chocolate into small pieces and place it in a bowl over hot water. Stir occasionally until it is melted and the temperature is 46-48°C If this temperature is exceeded, the chocolate is ruined.
Remove the bowl from saucepan and set in iced water, stirring carefully until the chocolate begins to set on the bottom. Then warm the chocolate carefully over hot water until the temperature is dark chocolate to 31°C, in milk chocolate to 29°C and in white chocolate to 29°C. If the temperatures are exceeded, the tempering process should begin again.
It is only necessary to temper chocolate when using it for moulding or dipping. For any fillings, pure chocolate or cooking chocolate can be used without tempering.
The Cocoa Plant
The cocoa plant is a small tropical tree, originally grown in South and Central America; but now commercially grown in West Africa. The cocoa tree requires a good soil, a huge rainfall and a low altitude. The part of the plant that is processed and used for the making of cocoa and chocolate is the fruit that grows on the main trunk of the tree, as well as on the branches. The fruit is a large pod 4“ to 12“ in length and about 4“ in diameter and has a hard leathery rind containing 25-75 seeds in distinct rows, embedded in a soft pulp.
Classification
Cocoa may be classified under the following headings:
1. By the country of origin (Zambia/Mozambique).
2. By the species of the bean (Criollo/Forastero).
3. By the method of manufacture (For drinking chocolate/for milk chocolate).
4. By their particular use (Vending machines/Icings/Chocolate moulding).
Processing of Cocoa
The processing of cocoa bean into cocoa powder is done in seven stages, as mentioned under:
1. Fermentation of the Beans
The ripe cocoa pods are collected and split open and the beans and the pulp surrounding them are scooped out and put into a fermentation chamber, also called the sweat boxes, where the temperature is allowed to rise to 40 to 50°C (104 to 122°F). Fermentation will kill the germs and prevent germination and decomposition of the bean. It will also encourage enzyme reaction reducing the bitterness and developing flavour. The beans absorb the liquid from the fermenting sugary pulp which will then turn into alcohol and finally into acetic acid. As soon as the mass turns into the acid state, the fermentation is stopped. Otherwise unpleasant flavours and odours will develop.
2. Drying of the Beans
This is done by laying the beans thinly out in the Sun to dry and occasionally turning them over, or by passing them through a mechanical drying chamber. When completely dried, there will not be more than 4% moisture in the bean. At this stage, beans are exported, unless they are to be processed into cocoa chocolate.
3. Roasting the Beans
This stage is essential to develop the flavour and the aroma of the bean and to give colour. Moisture is lost at the stage, which assists in the removal of the shell from the beans.
4. Removing the Shell
This stage is also called “Winnowing”. The shell is removed from the bean by passing them through a series of rollers and sieves. The de-shelled beans, now mostly broken bits and pieces, are referred to as “Nibs”.
5. Alkalization of the Nibs (Dutch Processing)
This stage, that further develops the flavour and colour, is usually done by tumbling the nibs in an alkali solution. After drying, the nibs may be roasted to correct the moisture content.
6. Grinding the nibs
The nibs are now ground into very small particles, a process which releases a large amount of fat and results in the mass becoming a thick syrup. This fat is known as “Cocoa Butter”, usually 50% of the nibs.
7. Extraction of the Cocoa Butter
The cocoa fluid/mass is then fed into large felt lined steel pans fitted with a movable perforated lid. When subjected to hydraulic pressure, some of the fat is forced through the filter cloths, leaving behind a solid residue, known as the “Press Cake”. This is removed from the pan, allowed to cool, then pulverized and sieved. TO this fine powder, a small amount of salt and vanilla is usually added before it is marketed as the popular cocoa powder.
Plain Chocolate
The processing of chocolate involves the first six stages as for the processing of cocoa and then a further three stages:
1. Mixing the Cocoa mass with sugar
The cocoa mass is thoroughly mixed with powdered sugar in large blending kettles. The fat content is strictly controlled to obtain a standard product. Additional cocoa butter may be added to adjust the consistency.
2. Refining the mixture
This is done by passing the mixture through a series of five heavy rollers to reduce the size of the non-fat particles, so that the chocolate will be smooth to the palate. This stage exposes the particles to the air, reducing the moisture content, partially evaporating volatile substances, and lightening the colour of the mixture.
3. Conching
The final stage is concerned with producing a standard quality of chocolate. Conching is the mechanical agitation of the chocolate mass with additional cocoa butter at a temperature of 60-70°C (140-158°F). This will further evaporate volatile substances and also develop the flavour. Additional flavourings may also be added at this stage and the mixture is standardized. The chocolate is then set in moulds such as bars, slabs and is also known as courverture.
A chocolate in block has a tendency to collect moisture from the air and this can be seen in the form of beads of perspiration. This could be wiped carefully and well scraped before being used for dipping.
Milk Chocolate
The processing of milk chocolate is the same as Plain Chocolate (courverture), except that milk crumb is added at the refining stage and the conching is done at a lower temperature, but for a longer time. Milk crumb is a mixture of condensed milk and chocolate mass, reduced to a powder form.
Cocoa Powder
It is a product obtained by grinding roasted cocoa beans to an oily liquid, pressing this in a cocoa-butter press, to remove about half cocoa butter and then grinding the residual press cake to a powder. Chocolate powder is a blend of true cocoa powder, sugar and starch.
Drinking Chocolate
It is a modern beverage drink, prepared from the chocolate powder or chocolate flakes and made in similar manner to the cocoa drink, by adding hot water or milk.
White Chocolate
It is a product composed of pure cocoa butter, full of cream milk powder and sugar, milled together and passed through refining rolls. As pure cocoa butter has a strong taste and odour of chocolate, the product is similar in flavour to chocolate. It can be tempered and molded. Provided fat-soluble edible colours are used, white chocolate can be coloured pink, orange, yellow or green.
Chocolate Spread
It is permanently soft, pasty or semi-liquid product, which can be used in bakery as flavouring and colouring material for fillings, butter creams and fondants. To make it, add warmed golden syrup to melted chocolate courverture in the proportion of two parts of syrup to one part of courverture, mixing them thoroughly and adding the warm syrup into glass or glazed earthen ware jars and kept for use as needed.
Panache
It is the name given to a blend of chocolate and cream. Boiling fresh cream is mixed with grated or melted courverture and stirred occasionally till cooled.
Composition of Cocoa and Chocolate
Theobromine is the stimulant in cocoa and chocolate, along with some caffeine. The other major constituents of cocoa and chocolate include colour and flavour compounds, lipids and carbohydrate. The purple colour is due to the presence of anthocyanins. The chocolate flavour is contributed by the phenolic compounds.
Starch is the chief carbohydrate in cocoa and chocolate and functions as a thickening agent. Cocoa contains 11% starch while chocolate contains 8%. Cocoa has more thickening power than chocolate because of its high starch content. For this very reason, cocoa is not substituted on a direct weight basis for chocolate. Usually 3-3.5 tablespoon of cocoa powder plus ½ table spoon of fat are considered equivalent to 30 Gms of chocolate.
Fat constituent of cocoa and chocolate is cocoa butter. Cocoa varies in fat content from 10-22%. Chocolate contains 50% fat. The low melting temperature of chocolate (near 32°C) imparts a smooth texture and readily releases flavour components.
Uses of Chocolate
Cocoa powder and Chocolate powder are used:
1. As a hot beverage.
2. AS a flavouring agent.
3. As a colouring agent.
4. For hot and cold sauces.
Courverture is used:
1. As a coating.
2. As a decoration (Piping).
3. For moulding into Easter eggs etc.
4. For sauces.
5. For ice-creams.
Storage
Cocoa and chocolate deteriorate quickly in the presence of moisture and heat. Cocoa becomes grayish in colour and lumpy when stored at temperature above 16-21°C and in high humidity.
A mottled or grey surface known as bloom may develop on the chocolate when it is exposed to high heat and moisture. The melting fat and re-crystallizing in a different pattern on the surface contribute to the formation of bloom.
Appropriate tempering procedures during processing and the use of stabilizers retards the development of bloom. Sugar bloom, a rough greyish layer, may develop on sweet chocolate due to moisture; the dissolved sugar re-crystallizes on the surface.
The chocolate flavour appears not to be altered by the development of bloom or lumping of cocoa products, but the texture may be grainy. Milk chocolates also absorb flavours and odours when stored improperly. The quality of cocoa and chocolate is best when high temperature and humidity is avoided. The best protection is tightly sealed containers kept in a cool, dry place.
Nutritional Aspect
Cocoa powder and milk chocolate are rich in fats and carbohydrates. Being a highly palatable and energy concentrated food, it was used extensively in emergency situations such as wars and during rescue and evacuation situations.
Chocolate Tempering
Chocolate tempering is a process used to prepare pure chocolate liquor for cooking purposes. During tempering, it is essential that not one drop of water should come into contact with the chocolate
Procedure
Break chocolate into small pieces and place it in a bowl over hot water. Stir occasionally until it is melted and the temperature is 46-48°C If this temperature is exceeded, the chocolate is ruined.
Remove the bowl from saucepan and set in iced water, stirring carefully until the chocolate begins to set on the bottom. Then warm the chocolate carefully over hot water until the temperature is dark chocolate to 31°C, in milk chocolate to 29°C and in white chocolate to 29°C. If the temperatures are exceeded, the tempering process should begin again.
It is only necessary to temper chocolate when using it for moulding or dipping. For any fillings, pure chocolate or cooking chocolate can be used without tempering.
BUTTER
Butter is the fat of cream that is separated – more or less – completely from the other milk constituents by agitation or churning. The mechanical rupture of the protein film around the fat globules allows the fat globules to clump together. Butter formation is an example of breaking of an oil-in-water emulsion by agitation. The resulting emulsion that forms in butter itself is a water-in-oil emulsion, with about 18% water being dispersed in 80% fat and a small amount of protein acting as an emulsifier.
Butter is made from either sweet or sour cream. Butter from sour cream has a more pronounced flavour. The cream may be allowed to sour naturally or may be acidified by the addition of pure culture of lactic acid bacteria to sweet cream, which produces a butter of better flavour and keeping quality.
It consists of more than 80% butterfat and small amounts of protein, vitamin A and D, minerals, lactose and water. Butter must have a minimum of 80% fat content, a non-fat solid content of 2% and a maximum of 16% moisture (water).
Composition
Average composition of Butter
Fat 82.5%
Protein (Casein) 1.5%
Lactose 2%
Salt 2%
Water 12%
Factors that affect quality of Butter
1. The breed of animal (cow or buffalo) from which the milk was obtained.
2. The type of feed that was available for the animal.
3. The method of manufacture (fresh or ripened cream).
4. The efficiency of manufacture (wrong temperature may affect the colour and flavour of butter).
5. Whether or not the butter was blended.
6. The addition of salt and colour.
7. The method of packing and storing.
Classification of Butter
There are four main types of butter:
1. Fresh or Sweet cream Butter,
2. Ripened cream or Lactic Butter,
3. Blended or Milled Butter and
4. Special Butter
(Fresh and ripened cream Butters are known as “Creamery Butters”).
Manufacture of Creamery Butter
The manufacture of creamery butter takes place in four main stages, as mentioned:
1. Holding
The cream (35%) is pasteurized at 95°C (203°F) and held for 2 to 4 seconds. It is then cooled to 4.5°C (40°F) and held there for several hours to ensure the uniform hardening of the fat globules.
2. Ripening
When the end product is going to be a ripened butter or lactic butter, a “starter” (which is a laboratory culture of acid-producing bacteria) will be added during the Holding stage, in which the holding temperature will be 15.5-18.5°C (60-65°F) for 3 to 4 hours before being cooled to 4.5°C (40°F). This gives the butter a much fuller flavour. However, the flavour tends to fade and therefore the ripened cream butter has a shorter life than the sweet cream butters. This stage will be omitted when making the sweet cream butter.
3. Churning
The churning of cream is done in large stainless steel churns that hold about 1000 gallons of cream. The temperature must not exceed more than 4°C. The churns are rotated while internal rollers pass through the cream. This breaks the envelope of non-fat particles/solids that surround the small fat globules and coalesce to form larger groups of butter fat. The envelope is dispersed in the thin liquid part of the cream to form buttermilk. After about 30 minutes of churning, the butter separates out in the form of grains and floats in the buttermilk. The buttermilk is carefully drained away and used for other purposes.
4. Washing and Salting
The butter grains are now washed with ice water to remove any traces of buttermilk left on the surface of each grain, in order to maximize the keeping quality. Ice water also helps to harden butter grains. Salting can be done in two ways:
a. By adding fine grains of dairy salt, and
b. By soaking in a brine solution for 10-15 minutes and allowing the butter to absorb it.
The quantity of salt added usually average 1% for ripened cream butter and 1.5% for fresh cream butter. Salt contributes to flavour and improves the keeping quality.
The butter grains are then worked into a smooth solid mass by rotating the churns slowly for 10-15 minutes, then weighed and packed. Colouring (annatto) may also be added at this stage. If unsalted butter is required, the salting stage is omitted.
Blended Butter
Blended butter is a blend of butters from different regions or countries. These are mixed together to produce a product of standard quality at a competitive price, under a brand name.
Special Butters
This group includes some butter that are not commonly available and those which are not true butters. These include:
1. Whey Butter
Whey is the liquid which separates from the curd while making cheese. The butterfat obtained from the whey may be used to produce butter, or it may be added to fresh cream/milk prior to it being processed into butter. Due to its origin, this butter has a faint cheesy flavour.
2. Milk blended Butter
Quantities of milk are blended into butter, thereby increasing the moisture content to 24% (max.).
3. Powdered Butter
This is spray-dried butter containing 80% milk fat and non-fatty solids. It is produced on a large scale in Australia and is used mainly in the Bakery trade.
4. Compound Butters
These are made by adding a particular natural flavour or colour to butter, depending on the type of food with which it is served. It is generally used as an accompaniment e.g. Lobster Butter, Parsley Butter etc.
5. Cocoa Butter
This is not a true butter, rather obtained by crushing the cocoa beans. It is the most expensive ingredient used in chocolate making. Cocoa butter substitutes, using palm oil, are also available.
6. Peanut Butter
It is a paste-like substance obtained by grinding roasted peanuts that may be further emulsified and flavoured.
Uses of Butter
1. As a spread for bread, toast and scones.
2. As a basic ingredient in pastry-making and cake-making.
3. Used as an accompaniment (compound butter).
4. To enhance the taste and flavour of soups and sauces.
5. As a cooking medium (The smoke point of butter fat is only 127-130°C; so a vegetable oil should be used when high cooking temperatures are required).
6. For butter sculptures.
Butter is available in 10 Gms, 100 Gms and 500 Gms packs in the market.
Storage
Butter is a perishable product and tends to loose flavour and go rancid on prolonged storage. Exposure to sunlight can make it go rancid faster.
It must be stored at refrigerated temperatures (2°C), well wrapped and away from strong flavoured foods, for it absorbs odours and flavours easily. If purchased in bulk, it can be frozen at -25 to -35°C.
A good quality butter should have a clean flavour and aroma characteristic of the type of butter, have a close body, a waxy texture, be of uniform colour, have a uniform distribution of salt (if added), be clean in appearance and have an absence of any free moisture.
¬¬¬¬¬
Ghee is obtained by clarifying butter. Butter is heated to evaporate water. Pure ghee has a higher keeping quality and is a good cooking medium and a shortening agent used in Indian Cuisine.
Butter is made from either sweet or sour cream. Butter from sour cream has a more pronounced flavour. The cream may be allowed to sour naturally or may be acidified by the addition of pure culture of lactic acid bacteria to sweet cream, which produces a butter of better flavour and keeping quality.
It consists of more than 80% butterfat and small amounts of protein, vitamin A and D, minerals, lactose and water. Butter must have a minimum of 80% fat content, a non-fat solid content of 2% and a maximum of 16% moisture (water).
Composition
Average composition of Butter
Fat 82.5%
Protein (Casein) 1.5%
Lactose 2%
Salt 2%
Water 12%
Factors that affect quality of Butter
1. The breed of animal (cow or buffalo) from which the milk was obtained.
2. The type of feed that was available for the animal.
3. The method of manufacture (fresh or ripened cream).
4. The efficiency of manufacture (wrong temperature may affect the colour and flavour of butter).
5. Whether or not the butter was blended.
6. The addition of salt and colour.
7. The method of packing and storing.
Classification of Butter
There are four main types of butter:
1. Fresh or Sweet cream Butter,
2. Ripened cream or Lactic Butter,
3. Blended or Milled Butter and
4. Special Butter
(Fresh and ripened cream Butters are known as “Creamery Butters”).
Manufacture of Creamery Butter
The manufacture of creamery butter takes place in four main stages, as mentioned:
1. Holding
The cream (35%) is pasteurized at 95°C (203°F) and held for 2 to 4 seconds. It is then cooled to 4.5°C (40°F) and held there for several hours to ensure the uniform hardening of the fat globules.
2. Ripening
When the end product is going to be a ripened butter or lactic butter, a “starter” (which is a laboratory culture of acid-producing bacteria) will be added during the Holding stage, in which the holding temperature will be 15.5-18.5°C (60-65°F) for 3 to 4 hours before being cooled to 4.5°C (40°F). This gives the butter a much fuller flavour. However, the flavour tends to fade and therefore the ripened cream butter has a shorter life than the sweet cream butters. This stage will be omitted when making the sweet cream butter.
3. Churning
The churning of cream is done in large stainless steel churns that hold about 1000 gallons of cream. The temperature must not exceed more than 4°C. The churns are rotated while internal rollers pass through the cream. This breaks the envelope of non-fat particles/solids that surround the small fat globules and coalesce to form larger groups of butter fat. The envelope is dispersed in the thin liquid part of the cream to form buttermilk. After about 30 minutes of churning, the butter separates out in the form of grains and floats in the buttermilk. The buttermilk is carefully drained away and used for other purposes.
4. Washing and Salting
The butter grains are now washed with ice water to remove any traces of buttermilk left on the surface of each grain, in order to maximize the keeping quality. Ice water also helps to harden butter grains. Salting can be done in two ways:
a. By adding fine grains of dairy salt, and
b. By soaking in a brine solution for 10-15 minutes and allowing the butter to absorb it.
The quantity of salt added usually average 1% for ripened cream butter and 1.5% for fresh cream butter. Salt contributes to flavour and improves the keeping quality.
The butter grains are then worked into a smooth solid mass by rotating the churns slowly for 10-15 minutes, then weighed and packed. Colouring (annatto) may also be added at this stage. If unsalted butter is required, the salting stage is omitted.
Blended Butter
Blended butter is a blend of butters from different regions or countries. These are mixed together to produce a product of standard quality at a competitive price, under a brand name.
Special Butters
This group includes some butter that are not commonly available and those which are not true butters. These include:
1. Whey Butter
Whey is the liquid which separates from the curd while making cheese. The butterfat obtained from the whey may be used to produce butter, or it may be added to fresh cream/milk prior to it being processed into butter. Due to its origin, this butter has a faint cheesy flavour.
2. Milk blended Butter
Quantities of milk are blended into butter, thereby increasing the moisture content to 24% (max.).
3. Powdered Butter
This is spray-dried butter containing 80% milk fat and non-fatty solids. It is produced on a large scale in Australia and is used mainly in the Bakery trade.
4. Compound Butters
These are made by adding a particular natural flavour or colour to butter, depending on the type of food with which it is served. It is generally used as an accompaniment e.g. Lobster Butter, Parsley Butter etc.
5. Cocoa Butter
This is not a true butter, rather obtained by crushing the cocoa beans. It is the most expensive ingredient used in chocolate making. Cocoa butter substitutes, using palm oil, are also available.
6. Peanut Butter
It is a paste-like substance obtained by grinding roasted peanuts that may be further emulsified and flavoured.
Uses of Butter
1. As a spread for bread, toast and scones.
2. As a basic ingredient in pastry-making and cake-making.
3. Used as an accompaniment (compound butter).
4. To enhance the taste and flavour of soups and sauces.
5. As a cooking medium (The smoke point of butter fat is only 127-130°C; so a vegetable oil should be used when high cooking temperatures are required).
6. For butter sculptures.
Butter is available in 10 Gms, 100 Gms and 500 Gms packs in the market.
Storage
Butter is a perishable product and tends to loose flavour and go rancid on prolonged storage. Exposure to sunlight can make it go rancid faster.
It must be stored at refrigerated temperatures (2°C), well wrapped and away from strong flavoured foods, for it absorbs odours and flavours easily. If purchased in bulk, it can be frozen at -25 to -35°C.
A good quality butter should have a clean flavour and aroma characteristic of the type of butter, have a close body, a waxy texture, be of uniform colour, have a uniform distribution of salt (if added), be clean in appearance and have an absence of any free moisture.
¬¬¬¬¬
Ghee is obtained by clarifying butter. Butter is heated to evaporate water. Pure ghee has a higher keeping quality and is a good cooking medium and a shortening agent used in Indian Cuisine.
INDENT SHEET
I.H.M.C.T.A.N., Veer Sawarkar Marg, Dadar, Mumbai – 400 028
(Indent Sheet for the Practical Exams: Menu)
Name:_________________________________ ___Roll No.______________Date:______/______/20_____
Menu Note:
Soup/Starter :______________________________________________ Please write the name of the ingredients in the left hand column and the quantity required for each item in their respective column with the total in the last column.
(No ingredient should be repeated)
Bread Rolls :______________________________________________
Main Dish/Sauce :______________________________________________
Veg. Acc. :______________________________________________
Potato prep. :______________________________________________
Sweet :______________________________________________
Item
Sl.No. Ingredients Soup/ Starter Bread Rolls Main Course Veg. Acc. Potato Prep. Sweet Total Unit
Dish Sauce
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
(Indent Sheet for the Practical Exams: Menu)
Name:_________________________________ ___Roll No.______________Date:______/______/20_____
Menu Note:
Soup/Starter :______________________________________________ Please write the name of the ingredients in the left hand column and the quantity required for each item in their respective column with the total in the last column.
(No ingredient should be repeated)
Bread Rolls :______________________________________________
Main Dish/Sauce :______________________________________________
Veg. Acc. :______________________________________________
Potato prep. :______________________________________________
Sweet :______________________________________________
Item
Sl.No. Ingredients Soup/ Starter Bread Rolls Main Course Veg. Acc. Potato Prep. Sweet Total Unit
Dish Sauce
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Wednesday, October 20, 2010
Scotch broth No. of Portions 4
Ingredients QTY Unit
Boiled mutton 20 Gm
Onions 50 Gm
Carrots 50 Gm
Potato 50 Gm
Peas 20 Gm
Pearl barley 10 Gm
Stock 1 Lt
Salt To taste
White pepper powder To taste
Parsley 10 Gm
Pre-preparations:
1. Soak barley overnight.
2. Cut all vegetables into small dices.
3. Cut mutton into small dices.
4. Chop parsley finely.
Method:
1. Cook barley in stock. Strain and keep aside.
2. Add the vegetables in the same stock and cook till done. Add mutton and barley and continue cooking for 5 more minutes.
3. Add salt and pepper.
4. Serve hot garnished with parsley.
Ingredients QTY Unit
Boiled mutton 20 Gm
Onions 50 Gm
Carrots 50 Gm
Potato 50 Gm
Peas 20 Gm
Pearl barley 10 Gm
Stock 1 Lt
Salt To taste
White pepper powder To taste
Parsley 10 Gm
Pre-preparations:
1. Soak barley overnight.
2. Cut all vegetables into small dices.
3. Cut mutton into small dices.
4. Chop parsley finely.
Method:
1. Cook barley in stock. Strain and keep aside.
2. Add the vegetables in the same stock and cook till done. Add mutton and barley and continue cooking for 5 more minutes.
3. Add salt and pepper.
4. Serve hot garnished with parsley.
Monday, October 18, 2010
TRICOLOUR BISCUITS (8 portions)
Ingredients Quantity
Biscuit Base
Refined flour 170 gm
Powder sugar 85 gm
Margarine 85 gm
Baking powder ¼ tsp
Vanilla essence few drops
Milk (cold) 45 ml
Filling
Yellow jam 115 gm
Red and green coloring
Butter icing – little
METHOD
1. Sift flour and baking powder.
2. Cream margarine and sugar till light and fluffy.
3. Add essence to milk.
4. Work in flour with hands using as much milk as necessary to make pliable dough.
5. Roll out and cut even number of biscuits using a cutter.
6. On half the number cut out three holes with a half inch Savoy nozzle.
7. Bake at 150 C for about 30 minutes.
8. Sandwich a plain biscuit with a holed one using a thin layer of butter icing.
9. Sprinkle over the icing sugar and fill each hole with different coloured jam, yellow green and red.
Ingredients Quantity
Biscuit Base
Refined flour 170 gm
Powder sugar 85 gm
Margarine 85 gm
Baking powder ¼ tsp
Vanilla essence few drops
Milk (cold) 45 ml
Filling
Yellow jam 115 gm
Red and green coloring
Butter icing – little
METHOD
1. Sift flour and baking powder.
2. Cream margarine and sugar till light and fluffy.
3. Add essence to milk.
4. Work in flour with hands using as much milk as necessary to make pliable dough.
5. Roll out and cut even number of biscuits using a cutter.
6. On half the number cut out three holes with a half inch Savoy nozzle.
7. Bake at 150 C for about 30 minutes.
8. Sandwich a plain biscuit with a holed one using a thin layer of butter icing.
9. Sprinkle over the icing sugar and fill each hole with different coloured jam, yellow green and red.
FRENCH BREAD (400 gm)
Ingredients Quantity
Refined flour 250 gm
Yeast 10 gm
Sugar 10 gm
Salt 7-8 gm
Water 150 ml approx.
Poppy seeds 5 gm
Egg 1 for egg wash
METHOD
1. Make a dough using all the ingredients except poppy seeds. The dough has to be a hard dough. Round it up and keep it for proving for about 20 minutes.
2. Knock back and mould it into a French bread i.e. bulging in the centre and tapering at the ends and place it on a French bread tray to prove for about 30 minutes.
3. Apply egg wash. Sprinkle some poppy seeds. Make 2-3 slashes and bake at 200C for 20 minutes. Then reduce the temperature to 100C and allow the bread to harden up.
Ingredients Quantity
Refined flour 250 gm
Yeast 10 gm
Sugar 10 gm
Salt 7-8 gm
Water 150 ml approx.
Poppy seeds 5 gm
Egg 1 for egg wash
METHOD
1. Make a dough using all the ingredients except poppy seeds. The dough has to be a hard dough. Round it up and keep it for proving for about 20 minutes.
2. Knock back and mould it into a French bread i.e. bulging in the centre and tapering at the ends and place it on a French bread tray to prove for about 30 minutes.
3. Apply egg wash. Sprinkle some poppy seeds. Make 2-3 slashes and bake at 200C for 20 minutes. Then reduce the temperature to 100C and allow the bread to harden up.
NANKHATAI
Ingredients Quantity
Refined flour 140 gm
Powdered sugar 80 gm
Hydrogenated fat or 90 gm
Clarified butter (ghee)
Ammonium carbonate 1/8 tsp
Soda bicarbonate 1/8 tsp
Curd 1 tblsp
Nutmeg powder or ½ tsp
Cardamom powder
Charoli/pistachio/cashewnuts 10 gm
METHOD
1. Cream fat and sugar well.
2. Add in the curd, ammonia and soda bicarbonate. Cream well.
3. Add the flour and knead well with cardamom powder.
4. Divide into 20 portions.
5. Form into smooth round balls and place on a greased tray.
6. Decorate with pistachio or charoli.
7. Bake at 110C for about 45 minutes to one hour.
Ingredients Quantity
Refined flour 140 gm
Powdered sugar 80 gm
Hydrogenated fat or 90 gm
Clarified butter (ghee)
Ammonium carbonate 1/8 tsp
Soda bicarbonate 1/8 tsp
Curd 1 tblsp
Nutmeg powder or ½ tsp
Cardamom powder
Charoli/pistachio/cashewnuts 10 gm
METHOD
1. Cream fat and sugar well.
2. Add in the curd, ammonia and soda bicarbonate. Cream well.
3. Add the flour and knead well with cardamom powder.
4. Divide into 20 portions.
5. Form into smooth round balls and place on a greased tray.
6. Decorate with pistachio or charoli.
7. Bake at 110C for about 45 minutes to one hour.
Chocolate chip cookies Yield 30 Nos
Baking temp 150C
Baking time 20-30 mins
Refined flour 125 Gms
Pd. Sugar 75 Gms
Butter/Margarine 100 Gms
Eggs ½ No.
Chocolate chips 25 Gms
Baking pd A pinch
Vanilla essence Few drops
Steps:
1. Cream butter and sugar.
2 Add the beaten eggalong with the essence.
3. Mix in the flour with the baking pd.
4. Add chocolate chips and fold lightly.
5 Divide into portions round them up and place them on lightly greased tray.
6 Bake at 150 C for 30-40 mins.
Baking temp 150C
Baking time 20-30 mins
Refined flour 125 Gms
Pd. Sugar 75 Gms
Butter/Margarine 100 Gms
Eggs ½ No.
Chocolate chips 25 Gms
Baking pd A pinch
Vanilla essence Few drops
Steps:
1. Cream butter and sugar.
2 Add the beaten eggalong with the essence.
3. Mix in the flour with the baking pd.
4. Add chocolate chips and fold lightly.
5 Divide into portions round them up and place them on lightly greased tray.
6 Bake at 150 C for 30-40 mins.
Crème caramel
Ingredients Quantity
Eggs 2 N
Grain Sugar 60 g
Milk 300 ml
Vanilla essence few drops
Grain sugar [for caramelisation] 30 g
Nutmeg powder a pinch
Method
1 Place some sugar in four baba moulds and caramelize it.
2 In a vessel, beat eggs and sugar lightly add warm milk and mix.
3 Add essence and strain through a muslin cloth.
4 Pour this mixture into the prepared baba moulds.
5 Sprinkle some nutmeg powder over the caramel, cover and bake in a water bath at 120 C for 45minutes to 1 hour.
Wednesday, October 13, 2010
Stuffed eggs
Stuffed eggs | No. of Portions | 4 | ||
Ingredients | QTY | Unit | ||
Eggs | 4 | No. | ||
Mayonnaise | 50 | Ml | ||
Salt | To taste | |||
White pepper powder | To taste | |||
Cheese | 10 | Gm | ||
Parsley | 10 | Gm | ||
Capsicum - green, yellow, red | To garnish | |||
Salad leaves | 2-3 | No. | ||
Pre-preparations:
1. | Hard boil eggs. Shell and cut in halves vertically. |
Remove yolks carefully and mash with a fork. Keep aside. | |
Grate cheese. | |
Cut capsicums into small fancy shapes. | |
Keep salad leaves under cold water. |
Method:
1. | Mix yolks gently with mayonnaise, salt, white pepper powder and cheese. |
2. | Using a piping bag and a star nozzle, pipe out this mixture in the egg yolk pockets. |
3. | Garnish with coloured capsicum and / or parsely. |
4. | Chill in the refrigerator. |
To serve:
Place along salad leaves and serve chilled.
Standard:
Well-boiled eggs; without any blue-ring formation; with a tasty filling, garnished attractively with small and colourful ingredients. Served chilled over a bed of crispy and chilled salad leaves.
NOTE:
You can use butter instead of mayonnaise.
Any other ingredient like chicken, prawns etc. can be used in the stuffing.
Any other ingredient like stuffed olives can be used to garnish.
Fusilli and vegetables in tomato ragout
Fusilli and vegetables in tomato ragout | No. of Portions | 4 | ||
Ingredients | QTY | Unit | ||
Fusilli | 100 | Gm | ||
American corn | 50 | Gm | ||
Green capsicum | 25 | Gm | ||
Yellow capsicum | 25 | Gm | ||
Broccoli | 50 | Gm | ||
Olive oil | 20 | Gm | ||
Butter | 20 | Gm | ||
Garlic | 10 | Gm | ||
Onion | 50 | Gm | ||
Tomato | 150 | Gm | ||
Tomato puree | 100 | Ml | ||
Salt | To taste | |||
White pepper powder | To taste | |||
Fresh basil leaves | 1 | Sprig | ||
Sugar (optional) | 2 | Gm | ||
Pre-preparations:
1. | Cook fusilli in boiling salted water al dente. Drain and refresh. Add a teaspoon of olive oil and toss. Keep aside. |
Clean and cut broccoli into medium sized florettes. Blanch in boiling salted water, drain and refresh. Keep aside. Boil American corn separately and keep aside. | |
Cut green and yellow capsicum into lozenges. | |
Bruise and chop garlic. Chop onions. | |
Blanch and concasse tomatoes. |
Method:
1. | Heat olive oil and butter together in a pan. Add both the capsicums and toss for a few seconds. Remove and keep aside. |
2. | In the same pan, add garlic and sauté without browning. Add onions and sauté. |
3. | Add tomato, tomato puree, salt and pepper. Add a little water if required and cook till it thickens. Add sugar. |
4. | Add vegetables, fuseli and torn basil leaves to the ragout and toss well. Check seasoning. |
To serve:
Reheat and serve immediately
Standard:
Vegetables and fuseli cooked al dente; in a thick, red coloured sauce having a mild flavour of basil. Served hot.
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